Private pilot · ACS PA.VI.B · Instructor lesson plan

Navigation Systems and Radar Services

Student pack: Train: Navigation Systems and Radar Services · Full lesson: Prepare guide

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1 · Objective

By the end of this lesson your student can explain navigation systems and radar services in their own words, apply it in a realistic situation, and fly it to the ACS standard for PA.VI.B.

Why it matters for safety: Modern avionics make navigation easier, and they also make it easy to stop thinking. Pilots have flown into airspace, terrain and weather because they trusted a moving map they did not cross-check, or did not notice a lost signal. Knowing how each system works, what it can’t do and how to catch its failures keeps the box working for you.

2 · Assign before the lesson

Pre-work: the free Train pack, Navigation Systems and Radar Services. VOR, GPS, transponder and ADS-B, flight following, and knowing when not to trust the box.

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Pack: pilotprep.pro/train/ppl/navigation-systems-and-radar-services · Full lesson: pilotprep.pro/prepare/ppl/navigation-systems-and-radar-services

3 · Teach sequence

Key points to land

Identify every VOR by its Morse code before using it. No ident, or a test signal, means don’t use it.(AIM, Chapter 1, Air Navigation (navigation aids and GPS))
Set the course selector to the direction you’re flying; then the needle points toward the course and the TO/FROM flag flips at station passage.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Navigation)
GPS integrity: RAIM fault detection needs five satellites (or four plus baro-aiding); detecting and excluding a fault needs six (or five plus baro-aiding). A WAAS receiver gets integrity from WAAS instead while WAAS is available. If integrity is lost, cross-check with other navigation.(AIM, Chapter 1, Air Navigation (navigation aids and GPS))
Basic radar service (flight following) gives safety alerts, traffic advisories, limited vectoring on request, and sequencing where established, all workload permitting. You are still responsible for seeing and avoiding traffic, terrain and weather.(AIM, Chapter 4, Air Traffic Control (radar services for VFR aircraft); 14 CFR 91.113)
Squawk 1200 for VFR, 7700 for an emergency, 7600 for lost communications, 7500 for hijacking.(AIM, Chapter 4, Air Traffic Control (radar services for VFR aircraft))
Altitude-reporting transponder (91.215) and ADS-B Out (91.225) are required in Class A, B and C; within 30 nm of a Class B primary airport from the surface to 10,000 MSL; above the ceiling and within the lateral limits of Class B or C up to 10,000 MSL; and in Class E at or above 10,000 MSL excluding at or below 2,500 AGL. ADS-B Out is also required in Class E over the Gulf of Mexico at or above 3,000 MSL within 12 nm of the coast.(14 CFR 91.215; 91.225)
Data-link weather (FIS-B) is not real time: the age shown is when the mosaic was made, and the weather in it can be 15 to 20 minutes older. Use it for strategic planning, never to pick a way through thunderstorms.(AIM, Chapter 7, Safety of Flight (in-flight weather and FIS-B); NTSB Safety Alert SA-017)

VOR

A VOR transmits radials on 108.00-117.95 MHz. Reception is line of sight, so range grows with altitude.(AIM, Chapter 1, Air Navigation (navigation aids and GPS))
Tune and identify by Morse code. A missing ident, or a test signal, means the station is under maintenance and may be unreliable.(AIM, Chapter 1, Air Navigation (navigation aids and GPS))
The course deviation indicator shows where the course is relative to you, not your heading. Full-scale deflection is about 10° off the selected radial.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Navigation)
Finding where you are: tune and identify, then turn the course selector until the needle centers. With a FROM flag, that's the radial you're on; with a TO flag, it's the course to the station. The needle doesn't point at the station, and TO/FROM depends on the selected course and your position, not where the nose points.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Navigation)
Sensing is normal when your heading is roughly the same as the selected course, and reversed when your heading is roughly opposite it.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Navigation; Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B))
Intercept and track: set the course with normal sensing, intercept at about 30-45° (steeper when far off, shallower when close), turn onto the course as the needle centers, then bracket a wind correction until the needle stays centered. Near the station the needle gets more sensitive: make smaller corrections and don't chase it. Hold altitude ±200 feet and heading ±15°.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Navigation; Private Pilot ACS (FAA-S-ACS-6C), PA.VI.B.S3, S7)
Over the station, in the cone of confusion, the needle swings and the TO/FROM flag flickers or shows OFF. Hold your heading, don't chase the needle, and count station passage at the first steady TO-to-FROM flip.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Navigation; AIM 1-1-3)
DME, usually paired with a VOR (a VORTAC), gives slant-range distance in nautical miles; it reaches its minimum (your height above the station) at station passage, so close in it reads more than the ground distance.(AIM 1-1-7)
For IFR, the VOR must have been checked within the last 30 days (VOT or ground checkpoint ±4°, airborne checkpoint ±6°, dual VORs within 4° of each other, or an airborne check over a prominent ground point on an airway radial, preferably more than 20 nm from the station, ±6°). Record the date, place, bearing error and your signature in the aircraft log or another record. It is a good habit for VFR too.(14 CFR 91.171(b), (d))

GPS and the database

GPS position comes from satellite ranging. RAIM checks the integrity of the solution: detecting a fault needs five satellites (or four with baro-aiding), excluding it needs six (or five with baro-aiding). A WAAS (SBAS) receiver doesn't rely on RAIM while WAAS is available; know which kind your airplane has.(AIM, Chapter 1, Air Navigation (navigation aids and GPS))
Know whether your unit is approved for the use you’re making of it, and check the database date. An expired database can have missing or moved airspace, frequencies and airports.(AIM, Chapter 1, Air Navigation (navigation aids and GPS))
GPS can be jammed or interfered with; NOTAMs announce GPS testing. Signs include integrity alerts, a jumping position or a sudden loss of navigation.(AIM, Chapter 1, Air Navigation (navigation aids and GPS))

Transponder, ADS-B and radar services

Mode A sends a code; Mode C adds pressure altitude; Mode S adds a unique address and data link. ADS-B Out broadcasts your GPS position, altitude and velocity.(AIM, Chapter 4, Air Traffic Control (radar services for VFR aircraft))
ADS-B In can show traffic (TIS-B) and weather (FIS-B). The traffic picture is incomplete: TIS-B depends on ground-station and radar coverage, and only aircraft that are transponder- or ADS-B-equipped and within coverage appear. So keep looking outside.(AIM, Chapter 4, Air Traffic Control (radar services for VFR aircraft))
For VFR flight following, call the approach or center frequency with the facility, your call sign and type, position, altitude, destination and the request: "Approach, Cessna 12345, VFR, 10 miles southwest of [airport] at 4,500, request flight following to [destination]." Traffic calls are given by clock position relative to your track, so correct for any wind correction angle.(AIM, Chapter 4, Air Traffic Control (radar services for VFR aircraft))
Answer a traffic call with "traffic in sight" or "looking". Radar service doesn’t relieve you of see-and-avoid, terrain clearance or weather avoidance.(AIM, Chapter 4, Air Traffic Control (radar services for VFR aircraft))

Automation and the EFB

Know what mode the autopilot and navigator are in and what they will do next. If you don’t understand what the automation is doing, reduce to a level you do, or hand-fly.(Risk Management Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2A))
An electronic flight bag is only as good as its battery, its data and your skill. Keep it charged and current, keep a backup, and watch for overheating in the sun.(AC 91-78, Use of Electronic Flight Bags)

When things go wrong

Programming a navigator can take your eyes inside for a long time. Plan and load the route on the ground, and keep inputs short in flight.(AC 90-48, Pilots' Role in Collision Avoidance)
On a lost signal or an integrity alert, fly the airplane, then switch to another source: the VOR, pilotage from the chart, or ATC.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Navigation)

Watch for in the airplane: Your instructor watches whether you identify the station, set up the navigator before you need it, cross-check the box against the chart, keep looking outside while using radar services, and handle a lost signal calmly.

4 · Ask your student

In order: recall, then understanding, then applying it. Move up only when the answer shows it.

Recall · What transponder code do you squawk for VFR, and for an emergency?
A strong answer: 1200 for VFR. 7700 for an emergency.
Understand · Why do you have to identify a VOR before you use it?
A strong answer: To make sure you’re tuned to the right station and that it’s in service. A station under maintenance can drop or replace its ident and may give bad information.
Apply · Your GPS shows an integrity alert halfway to your destination. What do you do?
A strong answer: Keep flying the heading and altitude, check position with pilotage and the VOR, and don’t rely on the GPS until integrity returns. If I’m unsure, ask ATC for help.

Scenarios to talk through

On flight following, ATC calls traffic at 2 o’clock, 4 miles. You’re holding a 15° right wind correction. Where do you look?
Sound decision: Traffic calls are relative to your track, and your nose is pointed 15° right of your track, so look a bit left of 2 o’clock relative to the nose. Answer "looking" until you have it.
Your tablet’s moving map shows you clear of a Class C shelf, but the panel GPS and the VOR put you near its edge. What do you do?
Sound decision: Trust the cross-check, not one source. Turn away from the boundary and contact approach to verify your position. Change altitude only to an altitude you know is clear: an unplanned climb or descent can take you into a Class B or C shelf above or below. Check afterward why the tablet disagreed (position source, database, battery).
You’re tracking inbound on a VOR radial and the TO/FROM flag flips. What happened?
Sound decision: Station passage. Over the station the needle may swing and the flag flicker in the cone of confusion: hold the heading, count passage at the first steady TO-to-FROM flip, note the time, then turn to the outbound course and confirm the needle settles.

5 · Common student errors

Flying with reverse sensing.
Why it matters: When your heading is roughly opposite the selected course, the needle sends you the wrong way.
How to correct it: Set the course you’re actually flying so your heading and the selected course agree, and check the TO/FROM flag.
Treating flight following as a traffic guarantee.
Why it matters: Controllers call traffic when workload permits, and not every airplane shows on radar.
How to correct it: Keep scanning outside, and use the calls as extra help.
Heads-down programming.
Why it matters: Long navigator inputs in flight cause altitude and heading errors and missed traffic.
How to correct it: Load the route before takeoff; in flight, short inputs and look outside between them.

6 · Completion standard

Intercept and track a given course, radial or bearing, and recognize station or waypoint passage.
Altitude ±200 feet and heading ±15°.
Your student answers each "Ask your student" question in their own words, up to the Apply level, without prompting.
They talk through the scenarios and reach a safe, legal decision, explaining why.
They complete the pack’s quick check and can say what they flagged.

Area trained? Close out with a practice oral focused on PA.VI.B: pilotprep.pro/exam?exam=PPL&focus=PA.VI.B

7 · References

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25C), Navigation; Flight Instruments
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), Chapters 1, 4, 6 and 7
14 CFR Part 91, 91.3, 91.119, 91.123, 91.151, 91.159, 91.171, 91.215, 91.225
AC 90-48, Pilots' Role in Collision Avoidance
Private Pilot ACS (FAA-S-ACS-6C), Area VI
VFR sectional chart and Chart Supplement, for your route
Airman Certification Standards, task PA.VI.B

PilotPrep instructor lesson plan, from the Navigation Systems and Radar Services lesson (checked against current FAA sources 2026-11-12). A study and teaching aid, not FAA guidance; teach to your own judgment and the current ACS.