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Private pilot · ACS PA.I.F · Instructor lesson plan

Performance and Limitations

Student pack: Train: Performance and Limitations · Full lesson: Prepare guide

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1 · Objective

By the end of this lesson your student can explain performance and limitations in their own words and apply it to a realistic flight, to the ACS standard for PA.I.F.

Why it matters for safety: Many takeoff accidents happen in airplanes that were overweight, out of balance, or asked to perform at a hot, high field beyond what the numbers allowed. Doing the weight and balance and the performance calculations honestly, with margin, is how you find out on the ground, not at the end of the runway.

2 · Assign before the lesson

Pre-work: the free Train pack, Performance and Limitations. Weight and balance, density altitude and the performance charts: will this airplane do it today?

Anyone can open this link, no account needed. To see who trained it on your roster, use a free instructor account.

Pack: pilotprep.pro/train/ppl/performance-and-limitations · Full lesson: pilotprep.pro/prepare/ppl/performance-and-limitations

3 · Teach sequence

Key points to land

  • Before flight you must know the runway lengths and the takeoff and landing distances: from the approved AFM where one is required, otherwise other reliable information for the airplane, corrected for elevation, runway slope, weight, wind and temperature.(14 CFR 91.103(b)(1)-(2))
  • Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. High, hot and humid means less lift, less power and longer takeoff and landing.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • CG = total moment / total weight, and moment = weight × arm. The CG must stay within limits for takeoff, en route and landing.(Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B))
  • A forward CG raises the stall speed and makes the flare harder; an aft CG makes the airplane less stable and stall/spin recovery harder.(Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B))
  • Performance charts come from a new airplane in good condition flown with average piloting skill. Below-average technique or a tired airplane does worse, so set a written personal margin.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • Know the V-speeds and the airspeed indicator markings: white arc (flaps), green arc (normal), yellow arc (caution), red line (never exceed).(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aerodynamics of Flight)
  • Maneuvering speed decreases as weight decreases.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aerodynamics of Flight)

Using the charts

  • The POH has charts and tables for takeoff and landing distance (ground roll and over a 50-foot obstacle), climb, cruise, fuel and density altitude.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • Read them with the right inputs: pressure altitude, temperature, weight, wind and runway surface. Interpolate between lines; don't round in your favor.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • Apply the notes on the chart: headwind and tailwind corrections, grass runways, flap settings and technique assumptions.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)

What changes performance

  • Density altitude: pressure altitude (altimeter set to 29.92) corrected for temperature. Standard is 15°C at sea level, decreasing about 2°C per 1,000 feet. Humidity makes it worse.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • Weight: heavier means longer takeoff and landing, slower climb and higher stall speed.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • Wind: a headwind shortens takeoff and landing distances; a tailwind lengthens them a lot.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • Runway: grass, soft, wet or upsloping runways lengthen takeoff; downslope lengthens landing.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • Pilot technique and configuration: the charts assume the POH technique and flap setting. Different technique gives different numbers.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • The book numbers come from a new airplane in good working order flown with average piloting skill. A worn engine, a dirty airframe or below-average technique does worse.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • Make the margin a rule, not a feeling: for example, the factored takeoff or landing distance must fit well inside the runway available (a written personal minimum). Apply the POH wind corrections as published: tailwind penalties are larger than headwind credits and often capped, so never assume they are symmetric.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • Configuration is a performance factor too: flaps and gear change lift, drag and stall speed, and each chart is valid only for the configuration and technique it states. VX (best angle), VY (best rate) and best glide come from the same performance data.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)

Weight and balance

  • Moment = weight × arm. Add up the weights and moments, then CG = total moment / total weight.(Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B))
  • Check against the CG envelope at takeoff and landing; burning fuel moves the CG.(Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B))
  • Out of limits? Move weight (baggage forward, a heavier passenger in front), offload weight, or carry less fuel if the trip allows.(Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B))
  • Shifting weight: weight moved / total weight = change in CG / distance moved.(Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B))
  • Forward CG: more stable, higher stall speed, heavier elevator, harder flare. Aft CG: less stable, lighter elevator, harder stall and spin recovery.(Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B))

Limitations and aerodynamics

  • Airspeed markings: white arc from VS0 to VFE (flap range); green arc from VS1 to VNO (normal); yellow arc from VNO to VNE (smooth air only); red line at VNE.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aerodynamics of Flight)
  • Maneuvering speed (VA): at or below it, a single flight control moved once to full deflection, in one axis, in smooth air, won't overstress the airplane. It doesn't protect against repeated or reversing inputs, several axes at once, or inputs combined with gusts. It decreases with weight (VA × √(actual weight ÷ maximum weight)) and isn't marked on the airspeed indicator.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aerodynamics of Flight)
  • Load factor is lift divided by weight: 2 G in a level 60° bank, and the stall speed rises with its square root (about 41% at 2 G). Typical limit load factors are +3.8/-1.52 G (normal) and +4.4/-1.76 G (utility), but your POH/AFM governs, and utility limits apply only when loaded and flown in the utility envelope.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aerodynamics of Flight; 14 CFR 91.9)
  • Ground effect within about one wingspan of the runway reduces induced drag: the airplane can lift off before it can climb, or float on landing.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aerodynamics of Flight)
  • Operating limitations in the POH, placards and markings are mandatory.(14 CFR 91.9)

Worked examples

  • Density altitude, step by step: get pressure altitude (set 29.92 and read the altimeter, or correct field elevation for the altimeter setting), then use the POH chart, or estimate about 120 feet per °C above standard. At a 4,000-foot field (pressure altitude about 4,000) and 35°C, standard is about 7°C, so it is 28°C hotter: about 4,000 + 28 × 120 ≈ 7,400 feet density altitude.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • What that means: the same indicated airspeeds, but higher true airspeed and groundspeed on takeoff and landing, a longer roll and a poor climb gradient; lean for best power per the POH. POH charts make no humidity correction, so on a humid day the numbers are optimistic.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • Reading a takeoff chart (example numbers, not for any specific airplane): at 4,000 feet pressure altitude the table gives 1,400 feet to clear 50 feet at 20°C and 1,550 at 30°C, so at 25°C interpolate to about 1,475. Then apply the chart's own wind note, for example minus 10% for each 9 knots of headwind (about 1,330), or plus 10% for each 2 knots of tailwind, and compare with the runway and your personal minimum.(PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aircraft Performance)
  • Weight and balance terms: the datum is the reference point; an arm (station) is the distance from it; moment = weight × arm; basic empty weight includes unusable fuel and full oil; useful load is what you can add (people, bags, usable fuel). POHs give the CG by computation, a loading graph, or a table.(Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B))
  • A worked computation (example numbers): empty 1,450 lb at 39.0 in (56,550 lb-in); front seats 340 lb at 37 (12,580); rear seat 150 lb at 73 (10,950); baggage 50 lb at 95 (4,750); fuel 40 gal = 240 lb at 48 (11,520). Takeoff: 2,230 lb, 96,350 lb-in, CG 43.2 in. Burn 20 gal (120 lb, 5,760 lb-in) for landing: 2,110 lb, 90,590 lb-in, CG 42.9 in. Plot both points on the POH envelope.(Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B))
  • Changing the load: adding or removing weight, new CG = (total moment ± weight × its arm) ÷ new total weight. Shifting weight inside the airplane: weight moved ÷ total weight = CG change ÷ distance moved.(Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B))
  • Why CG matters: a forward CG needs more tail-down force, so the wing lifts the weight plus that force, raising stall speed and drag and slowing cruise. An aft CG lowers stall speed and speeds cruise, but reduces stability and makes stall and spin recovery harder.(Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B))
  • Don't trade fuel for payload down to the 91.151 minimum (30 minutes by day), and treat every split load or "two trips" plan as a new weight-and-balance and performance calculation.(14 CFR 91.151; PHAK (FAA-H-8083-25C), Weight and Balance)

4 · Ask your student

In order: recall, then understanding, then applying it. Move up only when the answer shows it.

  1. Recall · What is density altitude?

    A strong answer: Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. It's the altitude the airplane "feels" for performance.

  2. Understand · Why does a forward CG raise the stall speed?

    A strong answer: The tail has to push down harder to hold the nose up, which adds to the load the wing must carry, so it needs more angle of attack at a given speed and stalls at a higher speed.

  3. Apply · It's 35°C at a field 4,000 feet high, with a 2,500-foot runway. What do you do before deciding to go?

    A strong answer: Compute density altitude, then takeoff distance over a 50-foot obstacle at our actual weight from the POH. Add a big margin. If it doesn't fit comfortably, lighten the load, wait for cooler temperatures, or don't go.

Scenarios to talk through

  • With you, two adult passengers, bags and full fuel, the airplane is 60 pounds over maximum takeoff weight. What are your options?

    Sound decision: Take off at or below max weight only: carry less fuel if the trip still meets the reserve, leave bags, or make two trips. Never take off overweight.

  • Your weight and balance is in limits at takeoff, but the CG moves aft as fuel burns and reaches the aft limit before landing. Is that acceptable?

    Sound decision: No. It must be within limits for all phases of flight, including landing. Move baggage forward or change the loading.

  • You computed a takeoff distance of 1,800 feet over a 50-foot obstacle. The runway is 2,000 feet with trees at the end. Do you go?

    Sound decision: That margin is too thin: real performance is usually worse than the book. Reduce weight, wait for cooler air or a headwind, or choose another runway.

5 · Common student errors

  • Checking weight and balance only at takeoff.

    Why it matters: Fuel burn moves the CG, sometimes out of limits.

    How to correct it: Check the landing CG too.

  • Taking chart numbers at face value.

    Why it matters: They assume a new airplane in good condition and average technique.

    How to correct it: Set a written personal minimum, such as factored distance well inside the runway available.

  • Using indicated altitude for performance.

    Why it matters: Performance depends on density altitude.

    How to correct it: Get pressure altitude (set 29.92) and correct for temperature.

6 · Completion standard

  • Your student answers each "Ask your student" question in their own words, up to the Apply level, without prompting.
  • They talk through the scenarios and reach a safe, legal decision, explaining why.
  • They complete the pack’s quick check and can say what they flagged.

Area trained? Close out with a practice oral focused on PA.I.F: pilotprep.pro/exam?exam=PPL&focus=PA.I.F

7 · References

  • Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25C), Aerodynamics of Flight; Aircraft Performance; Weight and Balance
  • Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B)
  • 14 CFR 91.9, 91.103
  • Your airplane's POH/AFM, performance charts, limitations, weight and balance
  • Airman Certification Standards, task PA.I.F

PilotPrep instructor lesson plan, from the Performance and Limitations lesson (checked against current FAA sources 2026-11-12). A study and teaching aid, not FAA guidance; teach to your own judgment and the current ACS.